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Abstract Atherosclerosis (AS) is a common cardiovascular disease with complex pathogenesis, in which multiple pathways and their interweaving regulatory mechanism remain unclear

Besides, IH could promote neuronal apoptosis in normal mice and diabetes mice models, the latter had higher apoptosis levels and could be modulated by high mobility group box-1 protein (HMGB1)/toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signal [53]

These findings indicate that limiting serine metabolism may have significant implications for immunotherapy, highlighting the importance of targeting these pathways in cancer therapy

This intracellular iron overload is linked to dysregulated expression of key iron-related proteins such as DMT1, TfR1, ferritin, and ferroportin (FPN), which regulate iron influx, storage, and efflux (352, 353, 355, 362)